Research Article | Open Access | Download PDF
Volume 74 | Issue 5 | Year 2026 | Article Id. IJETT-V74I5P129 | DOI : https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V74I5P129Feature Selection based on Mutual Information and Machine Learning for DDoS Attacks Detection
MAZIGHI Abdellah, Lahoucine BALLIHI, Ghizlane ORHANOU
| Received | Revised | Accepted | Published |
|---|---|---|---|
| 05 Dec 2025 | 02 Mar 2026 | 28 Mar 2026 | 30 May 2026 |
Citation :
MAZIGHI Abdellah, Lahoucine BALLIHI, Ghizlane ORHANOU, "Feature Selection based on Mutual Information and Machine Learning for DDoS Attacks Detection," International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT), vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 458-483, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V74I5P129
Abstract
Because of the dizzying increase of Distributed Denial of Service attacks (DDoS) all over the world and despite all the progress made in the field of the development of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs), there are still advances to be made in this area, particularly through the use of machine learning techniques. In the present paper, our main objective is to improve DDoS attacks detection by the use of Machine Learning techniques combined with feature selection based on Mutual Information. After the pre-processing step, we have proved by experiments on a recent large public dataset the positive effects of feature selection with Mutual Information on DDoS attacks detection performances. (Complexity, Resource consumption, Execution times and incorrectly classified). We dealt with high dimensionality of the dataset by feature selection with Mutual Information. Performance is evaluated by the use of relevant metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. Finally, we conclude by analyzing our experimental results and propose some future works.
Keywords
CICDDoS-2019, DDoS attack, Intrusion detection, DDos detection, Machine Learning, Feature selection, Mutual Information.
References
[1] “Cisco 2018 Annual Cybersecurity Report,” Technical Report,
Technical Report by Cisco systems, 2018.
[Publisher Link]
[2] Statista - The Statistics
Portal, Statista, 2020. [Online]. Available: www.statista.com.
[3] Muhammad Ashfaq Khan,
“HCRNNIDS: Hybrid Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network-Based Network
Intrusion Detection System,” Processes,
vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 1-14, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[4] Yuanyuan Wei et al.,
“AE-MLP: A Hybrid Deep Learning Approach for DDoS Detection and
Classification,” IEEE Access, vol. 9,
pp. 146810-146821, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[5] Mona Alduailij et al.,
“Machine-Learning-Based DDoS Attack Detection Using Mutual Information and
Random Forest Feature Importance Method,” Symmetry,
vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1-15, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[6] Swathi Sambangi, and
Lakshmeeswari Gondi, “A Machine Learning Approach for DDoS (Distributed Denial
of Service) Attack Detection Using Multiple Linear Regression,” Proceedings, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 1-12,
2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[7] Tasnuva Mahjabin et al., “A
Survey of Distributed Denial-of-Service Attack, Prevention, and Mitigation
Techniques,” International Journal of
Distributed Sensor Networks, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 1-33, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[8] Rutika S. Chaudhari, and
Girish Talmale, “A Review on Detection Approaches for Distributed Denial of
Service Attacks,” 2019 International
Conference on Intelligent Sustainable Systems (ICISS), Palladam, India, pp.
323-327, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[9] Muhammad Naveed et al., “A
Deep Learning-Based Framework for Feature Extraction and Classification of
Intrusion Detection in Networks,” Wireless
Communications and Mobile Computing, vol. 2022, no. 1, pp. 1-11, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[10] Ziadoon Kamil Maseer et
al., “Benchmarking of Machine Learning for Anomaly Based Intrusion Detection
Systems in the CICIDS2017 Dataset,” IEEE
Access, vol. 9, pp. 22351-22370, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[11] Lirim Ashiku, and Cihan
Dagli, “Network Intrusion Detection System Using Deep Learning,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 185, pp.
239-247, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[12] Zahra Jadidi et al.,
“Flow-Based Anomaly Detection Using Neural Network Optimized with GSA
Algorithm,” 2013 IEEE 33rd International
Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops, Philadelphia, PA,
USA, pp. 76-81, 2013.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[13] Ansam Khraisat et al.,
“Survey of Intrusion Detection Systems: Techniques, Datasets and Challenges,” Cybersecurity, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-22,
2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[14] Bo Sun et al., “Intrusion Detection Techniques in Mobile Ad Hoc and Wireless Sensor Networks,” IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 56-63, 2007.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[15] Youssef Regragui et al.,
“Impact Evaluation of Feature Selection Algorithms on Machine Learning-Based
Intrusion Detection,” 2024 11th
International Conference on Wireless Networks and Mobile Communications
(WINCOM), Leeds, United Kingdom, pp. 1-6, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[16] Xuan-Ha Nguyen, and
Kim-Hung Le, “Robust Detection of Unknown DoS/DDoS Attacks in IoT Networks
Using a Hybrid Learning Model,” Internet
of Things, vol. 23, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[17] Ansam Khraisat, and Ammar
Alazab, “A Critical Review of Intrusion Detection Systems in the Internet of
Things: Techniques, Deployment Strategy, Validation Strategy, Attacks, Public
Datasets and Challenges,” Cybersecurity,
vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-27, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[18] Yi Xie, and Shun-Zheng Yu,
“A Large-Scale Hidden Semi-Markov Model for Anomaly Detection on User Browsing
Behaviors,” IEEE/ACM Transactions on
Networking, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 54-65, 2009.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[19] Ognjen Joldzic, Zoran
Djuric, and Pavle Vuletic, “A Transparent and Scalable Anomaly-Based DoS
Detection Method,” Computer Networks,
vol. 104, pp. 27-42, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[20] Maulik Gohil, and Sathish
Kumar, “Evaluation of Classification Algorithms for Distributed Denial of
Service Attack Detection,” 2020 IEEE
Third International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge
Engineering (AIKE), Laguna Hills, CA, USA, pp. 138-141, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[21] Julius Jow, Yang Xiao, and
Wenlin Han, “A Survey of Intrusion Detection Systems in Smart Grid,” International Journal of Sensor Networks,
vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 170-186, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[22] Elijah M. Maseno, Zenghui
Wang, and Hongyan Xing, “A Systematic Review on Hybrid Intrusion Detection
System,” Security and Communication
Networks, vol. 2022, no. 1, pp. 1-23, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[23] Sulaiman Alhaidari, and
Mohamed Zohdy, “Hybrid Learning Approach of Combining Cluster-Based
Partitioning and Hidden Markov Model for IoT Intrusion Detection,” Proceedings of the 2019 3rd
International Conference on Information System and Data Mining, pp. 27-31,
2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[24] B. Geluvaraj, P. M. Satwik,
and T. A. Ashok Kumar et al., “The Future of Cybersecurity: Major Role of
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning in Cyberspace,” International Conference on Computer Networks
and Communication Technologies: ICCNCT 2018, Singapore, pp. 739-747, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[25] Bilgehan Arslan, Sedef
Gunduz, and Seref Sagiroglu, “A Review on Mobile Threats and Machine Learning
Based Detection Approaches,” 2016 4th
International Symposium on Digital Forensic and Security (ISDFS), Little
Rock, AR, USA, pp. 7-13, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[26] Kamran Shaukat et al., “A
Survey on Machine Learning Techniques for Cyber Security in the Last Decade,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 222310-222354,
2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[27] Mouhammd Al-Kasassbeh et
al., “Feature Selection Using a Machine Learning to Classify a Malware,” Handbook of Computer Networks and Cyber
Security: Principles and Paradigms, pp. 889-904, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[28] Kahraman Kostas, “Anomaly
Detection in Networks Using Machine Learning,” Research Proposal, vol. 23, pp. 1-70, 2018.
[Google Scholar]
[29] Tamara Zhukabayeva et al.,
“Enhancing IoT Security: Effective Botnet Attack Detection through Machine
Learning,” Procedia Computer Science,
vol. 241, pp. 421-426, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[30] Abdussalam Ahmed Alashhab
et al., “Enhancing DDoS Attack Detection and Mitigation in SDN Using an
Ensemble Online Machine Learning Model,” IEEE
Access, vol. 12, pp. 51630-51649, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[31] Akindele S. Afolabi, and
Olubunmi A. Akinola, “Network Intrusion Detection Using Knapsack Optimization,
Mutual Information Gain, and Machine Learning,” Journal of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, vol. 2024, no. 1, pp. 1-21, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[32] Abdussalam Ahmed Alashhab
et al., “Ensemble Based Detection Model for DDoS Attacks in SDNs Using Advanced
Feature Selection,” 2024 17th International Conference on Signal
Processing and Communication System (ICSPCS), Surfers Paradise, Australia,
pp. 1-5, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[33] Ahmed Mohamed Salama,
Mohamed AbdElAzim Mohamed, and Eman AbdElhalim, “Enhancing Network Security in
IoT Applications through DDoS Attack Detection Using ML,” Mansoura
Engineering Journal, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 1-21, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[34] Yongqiang Shang,
“Prevention and Detection of DDoS Attack in Virtual Cloud Computing Environment
Using Naive Bayes Algorithm of Machine Learning,” Measurement: Sensors, vol. 31, pp. 1-9, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[35] Md. Alamgir Hossain, and
Md. Saiful Islam, “Enhancing DDoS Attack Detection with Hybrid Feature
Selection and Ensemble-Based Classifier: A Promising Solution for Robust
Cybersecurity,” Measurement: Sensors,
vol. 32, pp. 1-12, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[36] Dyari Mohammed Sharif, and
Hakem Beitollahi, “Detection of Application-Layer DDoS Attacks Using Machine
Learning and Genetic Algorithms,” Computers
& Security, vol. 135, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[37] Siriporn Chimphlee, and
Witcha Chimphlee, “Machine Learning to Improve the Performance of Anomaly-Based
Network Intrusion Detection in Big Data,” Indonesian
Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, vol. 30, no. 2, pp.
1106-1119, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[38] Mohammad Najafimehr, Sajjad
Zarifzadeh, and Seyedakbar Mostafavi, “DDoS Attacks and Machine-Learning-Based
Detection Methods: A Survey and Taxonomy,” Engineering
Reports, vol. 5, no. 12, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[39] Mohamed Riadh Kadri et al.,
“Survey and Classification of Dos and DDos Attack Detection and Validation
Approaches for IoT Environments,” Internet
of Things, vol. 25, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[40] Erick Odhiambo Omuya,
George Okeyo, and Michael Kimwele, “Sentiment Analysis on Social Media Tweets
Using Dimensionality Reduction and Natural Language Processing,” Engineering Reports, vol. 5, no. 3, pp.
1-14, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[41] Swathi Sambangi
Lakshmeeswari Gondi, and Shadi Aljawarneh, “A Feature Similarity Machine
Learning Model for DDoS Attack Detection in Modern Network Environments for
Industry 4.0,” Computers and Electrical
Engineering, vol. 100, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[42] Erick Odhiambo Omuya,
George Onyango Okeyo, and Michael Waema Kimwele, “Feature Selection for
Classification Using Principal Component Analysis and Information Gain,” Expert Systems with Applications, vol.
174, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[43] Anaahat Dhindsa et al., “An
Improvised Machine Learning Model Based on Mutual Information Feature Selection
Approach for Microbes Classification,” Entropy,
vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 1-15, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[44] Md Al-Imran, and Shamim H.
Ripon, “Network Intrusion Detection: An Analytical Assessment Using Deep
Learning and State-of-the-Art Machine Learning Models,” International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems, vol.
14, no. 1, pp. 1-20, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[45] Mohammed Al-Sarem et al.,
“An Aggregated Mutual Information Based Feature Selection with Machine Learning
Methods for Enhancing IoT Botnet Attack Detection,” Sensors, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1-20, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[46] Majid Torabi et al., “A
Review on Feature Selection and Ensemble Techniques for Intrusion Detection
System,” International Journal of
Advanced Computer Science and Applications, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 538-553,
2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[47] Iman Sharafaldin, Arash
Habibi Lashkari, and Ali A. Ghorbani, “Toward Generating a New Intrusion
Detection Dataset and Intrusion Traffic Characterization,” In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on
Information Systems Security and Privacy ICISSP, Funchal, Madeira,
Portugal, vol. 1, pp. 108-116, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[48] Arash Habibi Lashkari et
al., “Characterization of Tor Traffic Using Time Based Features,” In Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy ICISSP,
Porto, Portugal, vol. 1, pp. 253-262, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[49] Mehmud Abliz, “Internet Denial of Service Attacks and
Defense Mechanisms,” Technical Report, University of Pittsburgh, pp. 1-50,
2011.
[Google Scholar]
[50] Alvin Huseinović et al., “A
Survey of Denial-of-Service Attacks and Solutions in the Smart Grid,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 177447-177470,
2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[51] Monowar H. Bhuyan, D. K.
Bhattacharyya, and Jugal K. Kalita, “An Empirical Evaluation of Information
Metrics for Low-Rate and High-Rate DDoS Attack Detection,” Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 51, pp. 1-7, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[52] Abebe Abeshu Diro, and
Naveen Chilamkurti, “Distributed Attack Detection Scheme Using Deep Learning
Approach for Internet of Things,” Future
Generation Computer Systems, vol. 82, pp. 761-768, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[53] Omer Yoachimik, and Jorge
Pacheco, DDoS Threat Report for 2023 Q4, Cloudflare, 2023. [Online]. Available:
https://blog.cloudflare.com/ddos-threat-report-2023-q4/
[54] Rocky K. C. Chang,
“Defending against Flooding-Based Distributed Denial-of-Service Attacks: A
Tutorial,” IEEE Communications Magazine,
vol. 40, no. 10, pp. 42-51, 2002.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[55] Mohammad Masdari, and
Marzie Jalali, “A Survey and Taxonomy of DoS Attacks in Cloud Computing,” Security and Communication Networks,
vol. 9, no. 16, pp. 3724-3751, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[56] Clément Boin et al., “Scale
Matters: A Comparative Study of Datasets for DDoS Attack Detection in CSP
Infrastructure,” 2023 IEEE 12th
International Conference on Cloud Networking (CloudNet), Hoboken, NJ, USA,
pp. 27-35, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[57] Clément Boin et al., “One
Year of DDoS Attacks against a Cloud Provider: An Overview,” 2022 4th International Conference
on Advances in Computer Technology, Information Science and Communications
(CTISC), Suzhou, China, pp. 1-5, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[58] Kameswari Kotapati et al.,
“A Taxonomy of Cyber Attacks on 3G Networks,” International Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics,
pp. 631-633, 2005.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[59] Iman Sharafaldi et al.,
“Developing Realistic Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attack Dataset and
Taxonomy,” 2019 International Carnahan
Conference on Security Technology (ICCST), Chennai, India, pp. 1-8, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[60] Datasets, SCVIC-TS-2022:
Network intrusion data with original raw network packets, IEEEDataPort, 2023.[Online].
Available: https://ieee-dataport.org/documents/scvic-ts-2022-network-intrusion-data-original-raw-network-packets
[61] Liang Xiao et al., “IoT
Security Techniques Based on Machine Learning: How Do IoT Devices Use AI to
Enhance Security?,” IEEE Signal
Processing Magazine, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 41-49, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[62] Inès Ben Kraiem, “Multiple Anomaly Detection by Automatic Rule
Learning in Time Series,” University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès, pp. 1-145,
2021.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[63] Sumeet Dua, and Xian Du, Data Mining and Machine Learning in
Cybersecurity, CRC Press, 2016.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[64] Parag Saxena, Ultimate Machine Learning with Scikit-Learn:
Unleash the Power of Scikit-Learn and Python to Build Cutting-Edge Predictive Modeling Applications and Unlock
Deeper Insights Into Machine Learning,
Orange Education Pvt. Ltd., 2024.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[65] Gilles Louppe, “Understanding Random Forests: From Theory to
Practice,” PhD dissertation, Universite de Liege, 2014.
[Google Scholar]
[66] Ansam Khraisat, Iqbal
Gondal, and Peter Vamplew, “An Anomaly Intrusion Detection System Using C5
Decision Tree Classifier,” Trends and Applications in Knowledge Discovery
and Data Mining: PAKDD 2018, pp.
149-155, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[67] HongFang Zhou et al., “A
Feature Selection Algorithm of Decision Tree Based on Feature Weight,” Expert Systems with Applications, vol.
164, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[68] Ahmad Turmudi Zy et al.,
“Detecting DDoS Attacks through Decision Tree Analysis: An EDA Approach with
the CIC DDoS 2019 Dataset,” 2024 8th
International Conference on Information Technology, Information Systems and
Electrical Engineering (ICITISEE), Yogyakarta, Indonesia, pp. 202-207,
2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[69] Manjula C. Belavagi, and
Balachandra Muniyal, “Performance Evaluation of Supervised Machine Learning
Algorithms for Intrusion Detection,” Procedia
Computer Science, vol. 89, pp. 117-123, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[70] Kurniabudi et al.,
“CICIDS-2017 Dataset Feature Analysis with Information Gain for Anomaly
Detection,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp.
132911-132921, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[71] Rabie A. Ramadan, and Kusum
Yadav, “A Novel Hybrid Intrusion Detection System (IDS) for the Detection of
Internet of Things (IoT) Network Attacks,” Annals
of Emerging Technologies in Computing (AETiC), vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 61-74,
2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[72] Gerard Drapper Gil et al.,
“Characterization of Encrypted and VPN Traffic using Time-Related Features,” In Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy ICISSP,
Rome, Italy, vol. 1, pp. 407-414, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[73] Tala Talaei Khoei et al.,
“Ensemble Learning Methods for Anomaly Intrusion Detection System in Smart
Grid,” 2021 IEEE International Conference
on Electro Information Technology (EIT), Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA, pp.
129-135, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[74] Raj Kumar Batchu, and Hari
Seetha, “On Improving the Performance of DDoS Attack Detection System,” Microprocessors and Microsystems, vol.
93, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[75] Junhong Li, “Detection
of DDoS Attacks Based on Dense Neural Networks, Autoencoders and Pearson
Correlation Coefficient,” Faculty of Graduate Studies Online Theses, Dalhousie
University Halifax, 2020.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[76] Wes McKinney, Python for Data Analysis Data Wrangling with
Pandas, NumPy, and IPython, 3rd ed., O’REILLY, 2017.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[77] Pandas, Pandas - Python
Data Analysis Library, 2026. [Online]. Available: https://pandas.pydata.org/.
[78] Mahbod Tavallaee et al., “A
Detailed Analysis of the KDD Cup 99 Data Set,” 2009 IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence for Security and
Defense Applications, Ottawa, ON, Canada, pp. 1-6, 2009.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher
Link]
[79] Matt Harrisson, Learning Pandas Python Tools for Data
Munging, Data Analysis, and Visualization, WordPress, pp. 1-208, 2016.
[Publisher Link]
[80]Md Alamgir Hossain, and Md Saiful Islam, “A
Novel Hybrid Feature Selection and Ensemble-based Machine Learning Approach for
Botnet Detection,” Scientific Reports,
vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-28, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google
Scholar] [Publisher
Link]